Introduction
Game development is a multidisciplinary and collaborative field that can be categorized into three main branches: design, art, and programming. Among these branches, there is a wealth of resources available regarding art and programming, but game design, being a relatively new discipline without a universally established theoretical framework, has comparatively fewer and more scattered resources. Here, we will introduce commonly used and recognized conceptual knowledge within the industry, which, when studied as a whole, will provide a general understanding of game design.
Ludology and Game Theory differ in their approaches:
Ludology, or game studies, involves the interpretation and analysis of games in any form, with the aim of deconstructing games at a deeper level to facilitate a better understanding of games and aid in the game design process. On the other hand, Game Theory is a mathematical approach to the study of decision-making, analyzing interactions among multiple participants. In game theory, each participant has their own goals and strategies, and their decisions influence each other. The objective of game theory is to help participants find optimal strategies to maximize their gains. While games themselves involve the interplay between individuals and systems, the focus here is on the components of games and what games fundamentally are, rather than delving into the intricacies of strategic game mechanisms.
The Origin of Games
According to the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, games were invented by a king to save his country from famine. It is said that a king of Lydia, an ancient civilization that existed from the mid-7th century BCE to the mid-6th century BCE, implemented a desperate policy during a famine. Every other day, people would either eat or play dice games to pass the 18-year period of famine. Games captivated people, helping them forget their pain and hunger.
According to Herodotus' account, the famine persisted, and the king eventually decided to have the entire kingdom participate in a dice game that would determine their fate. The winner would set out to find a new place to live, hoping to create a better life. In the end, they left with a sufficient population to survive and brought civilization to a new location.
In recent years, scientists have discovered through DNA evidence that the Etruscans share the same DNA as the ancient Lydians. This finding has prompted a rethinking of this extraordinary story. Geologists have also found evidence of a global cooling period lasting about 20 years, confirming the occurrence of the famine at that time. This suggests that this extraordinary story may indeed be true.
The Universality of Games
Today, most people associate games with "video games," but games themselves are ancient and widespread. Games such as Go, chess, and mahjong, which have a long history, are considered games. Sports like soccer, basketball, baseball, and various other athletic activities are also games. Before the advent of electronic games, games were a prevalent form of entertainment in human society.
Games not only exist widely in human society but are also a common behavior among animals in nature. Zoologists have observed that play and frolic between animals are a process of practicing key survival skills for hunting, self-preservation, and more.
Due to the universality of gaming behavior in the animal kingdom, some anthropologists have concluded that "games are older than human culture." In books like "Reality Is Broken" and "A Theory of Fun for Game Design," as well as through the work of related scientists, it is argued that human gaming behavior is also a practice of survival skills relevant to humans. Although it may sound far-fetched, when we carefully consider it, real-time strategy (RTS) games can be seen as exercises in human planning behavior, first-person shooter (FPS) games challenge human hand-eye coordination and real-time reaction abilities, and multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) games simulate human on-the-spot reaction abilities, strategic planning, and teamwork. In many confirmed psychological studies, it has been found that different types of games can indeed activate relevant regions in the human brain and improve proficiency in related areas.
The understanding of games as a means of practicing and enhancing human skills and abilities is supported by various research and scientific literature. Games have the potential to engage players cognitively, emotionally, and socially, providing a unique platform for learning, problem-solving, decision-making, and collaboration. This perspective highlights the broader impact and significance of games beyond mere entertainment, positioning them as valuable tools for personal development, education, and even social change.
Relevant Concepts
Game ≠ Experience Itself
Games can provide experiences, but they are not the experiences themselves. Games serve as a medium for experiences. Since we cannot artificially create real-life experiences for people, we rely on game versions, computers, screens, and even tabletops to create virtual environments in which players can accept the settings and rules, thus simulating the desired experiences to some extent.
What Does "Play" Mean?
When we talk about games, the accompanying verb is always "play." However, many people have not thought about what "play" actually represents and what the underlying behavioral logic and reasonable psychological explanations are. The conclusions summarized in "The Art of Game Design" provide significant inspiration for game design:
Play is the behavior that satisfies curiosity.
Psychologists explain human play behavior as:
Play refers to activities accompanied by pleasure, excitement, power, and a sense of self-awareness. -J. Bernard Gilmore
Play is something people do voluntarily and enjoyably. -George Santayana
These statements explain why players engage in "playing" games and emphasize the key aspects to focus on when designing games.
What is a game?
The industry generally recognizes games to have the following characteristics:
Games are fully autonomous: Games themselves are self-regulating systems, and the act of playing games is voluntary and independent.
Games have objectives: Regardless of the type of game, there is always a final goal to achieve (such as defeating the ultimate boss), and there are various smaller goals to accomplish before reaching the final objective (such as completing tasks or leveling up).
Games involve conflict: Conflict in games arises from the interaction between the game system and the player (e.g., a powerful boss versus a weaker player), conflicts generated by the game's storyline (e.g., the evilness of the boss versus the player's righteousness), and conflicts among players themselves (e.g., players needing to defeat each other to obtain rewards).
Games have rules: The playability of games stems from the rules they establish, which can be understood as limitations imposed on players' abilities. For example, there can be physical rules. Without rules, something can only be considered a toy rather than a game.
Games have win/loss conditions: All games have win/loss conditions. These conditions not only provide players with clear objectives but also represent one of the most important rules of a game. Without this crucial characteristic, it would be more appropriate to call it a toy. For example, providing players with a synthesis furnace without specifying win/loss conditions or telling them what to do with it would not qualify as a game. Moreover, win/loss conditions should be provided by the game itself and be an integral part of the game. They should not be subject to individual players' arbitrary definitions because games are objective, closed, and rigorous systems.
Games are interactive: Games involve players actively participating in the system, providing input, and receiving output. The provision of output represents the interaction between the player and the system.
Games are challenging: Games provide players with challenging goals that stimulate their curiosity and desire to solve the puzzles or obstacles presented in the game. Imagine a "game" where players can endlessly shoot bullets and any contact with a monster results in instant death. Can it be considered a "game"?
Games can generate intrinsic value for players: Games can create subjective value for players that may not have practical or significant objective value in the game's context. For example, collecting moons in Super Mario Odyssey has no actual economic value or direct impact on the game's progress. However, the design of moon collection gameplay can engage players and make them perceive it as valuable and worth pursuing.
Games can attract players: A good game has the power to captivate players, offering immersive and positive experiences.
Games are formal and closed systems: The formality of games is reflected in the rigor of their rules, which should not change due to players' personal reasons. Closed refers to the enchantment of the entire system, transporting players completely into the virtual environment designed by game designers. This phenomenon is also known as the "magic circle."
Note: Points 8 and 9 are optional, but the other points are essential characteristics of games.
Magic Circle
The term "magic circle" originates from Johan Huizinga's book "Homo Ludens." The magic circle is used to separate meaningful ideas and activities during the game process from the real world. In other words, the magic circle represents the boundary between the real world and the imaginary world. It can also be understood as the mental imaginary world established by players when playing games.
For example, when a player starts a zombie shooting game, they not only accept the setting of entering a world full of zombies but also accept all the mechanics and rules within the game. When they play this game, they enter the "zombie world" created by the designer, and this world is the magic circle.
Components of a Game
In game design, a game consists of four major elements:
Aesthetics: Represents the sensory elements within the game, such as audiovisual elements like sound effects, music, scenes, and character models.
Mechanics: Refers to the processes and rules of the game as a whole. Mechanics accurately describe the player's game objectives and how to accomplish them.
Story: It involves the sequence of events in the game and is also a core part that allows players to easily engage with the entire game or game concept. Some games may not have a specific storyline, but their art style and various details portray a hidden story that players need to interpret.
Technology: Refers to the materials or media needed to create the game. For example, in tabletop games, the technological aspect refers to the game board, scoreboards, etc., while in video games, it refers to the game engine, 2D sprites, 3D models, etc.
Types of Games
Here are several common types of games:
FPS (First-Person Shooter): CS:GO, Valorant RPG (Role-Playing Game)
MMORPG (Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game): World of Warcraft, Sword Art Online ARPG (Action Role-Playing Game): Nier: Automata, Sekiro: Shadows Die Twice, Dark Souls
JRPG (Japanese Role-Playing Game): Persona 5
RTS (Real-Time Strategy): Warcraft III MOBA (Multiplayer Online Battle Arena): League of Legends, Dota 2, Honor of Kings (Arena of Valor)
Game Design Framework (MDA)
The widely used and accepted game design framework in the industry is the MDA framework, where M stands for Mechanics, D stands for Dynamics, and A stands for Aesthetics. Related literature link: https://users.cs.northwestern.edu/~hunicke/MDA.pdf
Player Perspective vs Designer Perspective
Designer Perspective
When designers use the MDA framework, they need to understand that the player's perspective is completely opposite to the designer's perspective. From the designer's point of view, we first need to outline a holistic concept (what kind of emotional experience I want to convey in this game) and then break it down into several real-life behavioral examples that can evoke this emotional experience. Finally, we decompose these examples into various mechanics for players to perform these behaviors. It is a top-down process.
Player Perspective
On the other hand, the player's perspective is exactly the opposite. Since players' overall understanding of the game is based on their level of interaction with the game, when players first receive a game, they will first experience the mechanics of the game. By combining various mechanics, they discover that they are simulating certain behaviors in real life or experiencing the gameplay of the game. These behaviors and gameplay combinations lead to emotional changes, creating a sense of fun in the game and even evoking unforgettable emotional experiences. The player's perspective and the designer's perspective are actually opposite processes, it is a bottom-up process.
As designers, we need to constantly switch between the player's and designer's perspectives. Through the player's perspective, we can understand whether the game is fun, and through the designer's perspective, we can understand whether the game is cohesive, layered, and profound as a whole.
Aesthetics (Goal Experience)
Emotional Palette
The emotional palette is a concept widely used in traditional visual design. Its original concept comes from the study of colors in psychology, where psychologists found that different colors can evoke different emotional responses in users. Designers can utilize this by incorporating different desired colors into the design to make it more logical and fascinating.
Based on Chen Xinghan's reinterpretation of the emotional palette in the game industry, he introduced the concept of emotional palette in game design. In other words, any game can have an underlying emotional experience that players can follow. For example, Angry Birds may make players feel relaxed and casual, while God of War may make players feel like a victorious violent warrior (sense of control, conqueror feeling).
Eight Pleasures of Games
Here, Aesthetics refers to the goal experience, or what kind of experience you want players to feel in your game. According to the analysis by the authors of the relevant papers, the goal experiences of all games can be categorized into the following eight pleasures, also known as the eight pleasures of games:
Sensation: Games that provide sensory satisfaction.
Fantasy: Games that fulfill players' fantasies of otherworldly experiences.
Narrative: Games that satisfy players' desire for compelling stories.
Challenge: Games that satisfy the desire of skilled players to conquer challenges.
Fellowship: Games that satisfy the interactive needs between players and fulfill social desires.
Discovery: Games that invite players to explore the unknown and satisfy their curiosity.
Expression: Games that serve as a medium for self-expression.
Submission: Games that provide leisure and a sense of satisfaction from completing simple tasks (common in casual games).
Each game can be deconstructed into one or several of the eight core pleasures. For example:
World of Warcraft:
Fantasy (players embark on adventures in Azeroth)
Narrative (captivating stories within Azeroth)
Challenge (various unique dungeon experiences)
Social (players forming guilds and growing together)
Expression (customizing characters and weapon appearances)
Pastime (from simple to challenging, including trading and chatting tasks)
Horizon 5:
Sensation (players freely drive dream cars while exhilarating music plays)
Pastime (completing race tracks)
Challenge (various high-difficulty race tracks)
To anchor the overall emotions and gameplay tone of a game, combining the use of an emotional color palette with the eight core pleasures is a good approach. Solely relying on the eight core pleasures to determine the game experience is effective, but it may lack emotional investment and depth from players. By incorporating an emotional color palette to establish the overall emotional tone and then deconstructing the emotions using the eight core pleasures, you can summarize the corresponding gameplay directions, resulting in a game experience that not only has emotional depth but also a sense of completeness and enjoyment.
For example, let's assume the requirement given by a leader is "design a relaxing social experience." In this case, you can position the emotional color palette as "relaxation" and extract the following core pleasures based on the keyword "social":
Keyword: Social - Community
Relaxation - Pastime, Expression
The overall gameplay tone of the game can then be focused on establishing a community experience (emphasizing player interaction, such as using emoticons and interactive items), pastime gameplay (e.g., match and pair gameplay or various casual mini-games with low intensity and low competitiveness, emphasizing cooperative gameplay), and expression (encouraging players to express their aesthetics and creativity, such as building their own world, homes, and customizing their characters).
Dynamics
Dynamics can be understood as actions that generate the intended player experience. Assuming our target emotional experience is "relaxation," applying the MDA (Mechanics, Dynamics, Aesthetics) framework, dynamics can be understood as "what actions can create a sense of relaxation for players." We can continue to consider and list the dynamics needed for this.
Listening to music
Meditation
Engaging in creative activities like painting
Drinking tea
Based on the deconstructed eight core pleasures - Community, Pastime, Expression, we can extend the list of dynamics further:
Cooperative gameplay (working together to achieve a goal)
Low-intensity gameplay (not emphasizing the impact of skill gaps among players)
Casual gameplay (taking reference from 4399 casual games)
With the above analysis of emotions and pleasures, we have listed the potential dynamics that the game may contain. At this point, we can combine them in various ways to brainstorm a reliable game design concept. For example, a cooperative decoration game, a cooperative city-building game, a cooperative music game, or a multiplayer cooperative karaoke game.
Mechanics
Game mechanics can be understood as the smallest units that contribute to the intended player experience. For example, a game mechanic could be "pressing the trigger button to shoot a bullet," and when combined with other mechanics, they form dynamics (interactive behaviors). If we deconstruct cooperative gameplay into corresponding mechanics, we might have the following:
Room mechanics (matching, kicking players, room host, inviting friends, etc.)
Team mechanics (inviting teammates, random matchmaking, etc.)
Team buffs (each player completing a small task to gain a certain buff value, and when the buff value is full, the entire team receives the buff)
By continuously breaking down and selecting dynamics based on the target experience, the entire game will become more cohesive and harmonious.
Mechanics themselves can be categorized as follows:
Positive feedback mechanics:
Positive feedback mechanics refer to a system where the output result influences the input, thereby enhancing or maintaining the system's output. For example, in Monopoly, earning money allows you to buy more properties, which in turn allows you to earn more money. The cycle of earning money and buying properties creates a positive feedback loop.
Negative feedback mechanics:
Negative feedback mechanics refer to a system where the output result influences the input, thereby weakening or stopping the system's output. For example, when a person wins too many games, the game's system will find a way to make them lose. In games like "King of Glory," players' win rates and other information are stored in a database. When matchmaking for ranked games, the system may intentionally match players with less skilled teammates. The system uses algorithms to maintain an average win rate of around 50% for players. The matchmaking process involves considerations of how to keep players' win rates balanced.
Common game mechanics:
Winning and losing, rewards and penalties:
This is the core mechanic that applies to all games, including electronic games. Winning and losing mechanics come in various forms—games like "Civilization" have multiple reward and victory mechanisms, and failures can be penalized in different ways. Generally, mechanics that provide positive or negative feedback to players can be classified as reward and penalty mechanics, while mechanics that provide such feedback and end the game can be called winning and losing mechanics. In most cases, reward and penalty mechanics are combined with other mechanics.
Turn-based, semi-turn-based, semi-real-time, and real-time mechanics:
This fundamental mechanic determines how time progresses in the game—turn-based mechanics allow each player (including AI) to take actions in sequence, with time freezing for others during their turn. Pure turn-based mechanics are common in classical electronic games, such as old-school RPGs. Semi-turn-based mechanics allow players to take actions during the enemy's turn, such as surveillance, counterattacks, or even inserting their own turn, as seen in games like "XCOM." Semi-real-time mechanics involve time flowing normally in most situations but allow players to pause time through specific actions, as seen in RPG games like "Dragon Age" or RTS games like "They Are Billions." Real-time mechanics keep time flowing continuously throughout the game, as exemplified by "StarCraft."
Action points:
This mechanic limits the actions a player or character can take. For example, in "Persona," each character can usually take one action per turn, with a weak hit granting a second action. In "Divinity: Original Sin," actions are determined by each character's AP (action points) and skill costs. In "Hearthstone," action points are intuitively expressed as "mana" or "energy."
Space, movement, and observation:
This mechanic allows players to move characters, objects, or change perspectives within the game space. It is a fundamental mechanic used in almost all games, except for fixed-perspective puzzle
State Changes:
In games, each object is typically assigned one or more states. These states can be spatial, physical, psychological, numerical, or any other definable attribute. The mechanism that modifies these attributes is collectively referred to as state change mechanics. Narrowly speaking, the more variable states an object has, the more dramatic the process of state change, which can make the mechanism more enjoyable but also more difficult to control and balance. Therefore, the most frequently used state changes in games are often the simplest binary transformations, such as life or death, on or off, static or dynamic, true or false, known or unknown, enemy or ally, and so on.
What is gameplay?
In contemporary large-scale electronic games, they often include multiple, or even all, popular game mechanisms to enrich the forms of interaction with players - this form is called "gameplay." It is the chemical reaction produced by the combination of multiple game mechanisms and cannot be determined by a single mechanism alone. Because it also represents the level of fun in a game to some extent, many people also refer to it as "gameplay."
With the long-term development and evolution of electronic games, many combinations of mechanisms have gradually been proven effective over time, just like fixed recipes - that is to say, everyone knows which combination of mechanisms will result in enjoyable gameplay.
When we use these mainstream "recipes" to summarize a game, it is called game classification (game genre). We often hear about "action-adventure games," "first-person shooter games," "Japanese-style role-playing games," which are famous classic recipes.
Therefore, game classification can also be seen as a summary and generalization of gameplay. For example, the most important mechanism in adventure games is "puzzle-solving," action games lean towards "quick reflexes," "combos," and "risk-reward," while hack-and-slash games focus on "killing/destroying/capturing." The combination of these three can describe the gameplay of many modern AAA titles, such as "action-adventure" or "action hack-and-slash."
Difference between Mechanisms and Gameplay
Game mechanisms (game mechanics) are one of the fundamental elements that constitute an electronic game and can be understood as the basic rules of the game. These basic rules are combined to form a model that determines how players and the game interact with each other, and this form of interaction is called "gameplay." In other words, gameplay originates from mechanisms, but mechanisms are not equal to gameplay.
What is game loop?
The game loop can be understood as an abstract summary of gameplay, answering the question "What activities does the player repeatedly engage in (play) in this gameplay?" For example, in almost all RPGs, we go through a game loop like this:
We can summarize the core gameplay of all RPGs as a loop of "defeating enemies, obtaining money, buying weapons, and items."
Three levels of game loop:
Clearly, players cannot repeatedly perform only one action in a game. Different actions also have varying degrees of importance. Here are the three levels of the game loop:
a. Primary Loop:
The primary loop is the loop that players are almost constantly engaged in. Typically, this loop is related to "movement" or "combat." Taking Resident Evil Village as an example, the player's primary loop consists of the following aspects:
At any moment in the game, the player is engaged in these aspects of the loop: moving in the map, battling enemies, and searching for items. Moreover, the transition from one aspect to another can be very quick: one moment you're navigating, the next moment you're in a combat encounter.
b. Secondary Loop:
The secondary loop is more abstract than the primary loop. It usually provides goals for the primary loop. Using Resident Evil Village as an example again, the player's secondary loop may consist of the following aspects:
While performing each of the above actions, the player repeatedly engages in the primary loop activities of moving, fighting, and interacting with items. At the same time, the player does not switch frequently between these actions. They don't accumulate resources one moment and immediately start decrypting the next moment, followed by an immediate shift to searching for clues. In other words, in the secondary loop, the player's action switching is slower than in the primary loop, which usually happens in seconds or even moments. Thus, even though the player keeps repeating the actions of the primary loop (moving/combat), they have different goals. The ten minutes of combat and exploration are for resource accumulation, while the next five minutes are for searching for clues. Even when performing the same actions, the player does not get bored because of the repetition. That's the role of the secondary loop.
c. Tertiary Loop:
It is called the tertiary loop not because it is unimportant but because it is often more abstract and further removed from the player's perception. Similar to the concept of the secondary loop, the tertiary loop represents more abstract and advanced goals. The time spent switching between the aspects of this loop is longer. Sometimes, it may not even resemble a traditional loop. If we try to illustrate it using Resident Evil Village, the tertiary loop of the game might include the following aspects:
To accomplish these tasks, players must repeatedly engage in the actions of the secondary loop (resource accumulation, searching for clues, puzzle-solving). Completing the actions of the tertiary loop requires a significant amount of time for the player but also brings immense achievements and satisfaction.
The four types of fun in games, and the enjoyment points that a good game needs to satisfy are:
According to Nicole Lazzaro's research, there are four different types of fun in games: Hard Fun, Easy Fun, Serious Fun, and People Fun.
Hard Fun:
Hard Fun refers to the enjoyment players experience when facing challenges in a game. It stems from the satisfaction of overcoming obstacles and achieving goals. Game designers can use hard fun to create engaging and rewarding gameplay for players. However, it's important to strike a balance between challenging players and making them feel frustrated. If a game is too difficult, players may feel frustrated and give up, but if it's too easy, they may lose interest.
Easy Fun:
Easy Fun refers to the enjoyment players experience when not facing challenges in a game. This can come from playing a casual game that doesn't require much skill. Easy fun can be a good way to relax and unwind, but it's not always the most engaging type of fun. Designers need to be careful not to make their games too easy, as players may quickly lose interest.
People Fun:
People Fun refers to the enjoyment players experience when interacting with other players in a game. This type of fun can arise in multiplayer games or games that allow players to connect with each other. People Fun is a great way to build social connections and make new friends. Game designers can leverage social interactions to create a sense of community in their games.
Serious Fun:
Serious Fun refers to the enjoyment players experience when emotionally invested in a game. This occurs when a game has a compelling storyline, interesting characters, or creates an emotional connection with the player. Game designers can use Serious Fun to create games that have a lasting impact on players. However, it's important to ensure that the emotional content of the game is suitable for the audience. If a game becomes too intense or emotional, it may lose the interest of players.
Nicole Lazzaro found that good games incorporate all four types of fun, and they are essential to the overall experience. Therefore, when designing a game, it's worth considering whether these aspects of fun are being addressed.
Interest Curve:
The interest curve can be applied in various aspects of game design, such as plot design and level design. It uses different stimulating points (B, C, E, G) to maximize player engagement.
Reference List:
"The Art of Game Design" (《游戏设计的艺术》)
"Reality is Broken: Why Games Make Us Better and How They Can Change the World" (《游戏改变世界》)
"Theory of Fun for Game Design" (《游戏设计的乐趣理论》)
"Negative Feedback Mechanisms in Games" (《游戏中的负反馈机制》) [Article Link: https://cloud.tencent.com/developer/news/106371]
"Designing Journey" (《设计之旅》) [YouTube Video Link: https://youtu.be/UGCkVHSvjzM]
"Fundamentals of Game Design" by Ernest Adams (《游戏设计基础》 Ernest Adams)
"What are the Mechanics, Gameplay, and Content of a Game?" (《到底什么是一个游戏的机制、玩法、内容？》) [Article Link: https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/36674971]
"What is a Game Loop?" (《游戏循环是什么》)
"The 4 Types of Fun in Game Design" (《游戏设计中的四种乐趣》)